2000
Andrade, Tonio
Commerce, Culture and Conflict: Taiwan under European Rule, 1624-1662
Chrissidis, Nikolaos
Creating the New Educated Elite: Learning and Faith in Moscow’s Slavo-Greco-Latin Academy, 1685-1694
Hartch, Todd Ferguson
At the Service of the State: The Summer Institute of Linguistics in Mexico, 1935-1985
Hoare, Marko Atilla
The Chetnik-Partisan Conflict and the Origins of Bosnian Statehood
Johnson, Benjamin Heber
Sedition and Citizenship in South Texas, 1900-1930
Kagan, Kimberly Ellen
The Face of Battle, the Eye of Command
Lofthouse, Richard Andrews
Vitalism in English and German Modernism, c. 1900-1960: Otto Dix, Stanley Spencer, Max Beckmann and Jacob Epstein
Olcott, Jocelyn Harrison
Las Hijas de la Malinche: Women’s Organizing and State Formation in Postrevolutionary Mexico, 1934-1940
Scheid, Fernande Beatrice
Stalin, Bagirov, and Soviet Policies in Iran, 1939-1946
Shurkin, Michael Robert
French Nation Building, Liberalism, and the Jews of Alsace and Algeria, 1815-1870
Vrandecic, Josip
The Autonomist Movement in Nineteenth-Century Austrian Dalmatia
Witt, John Fabian
The Accidental Republic: Amputee Workingmen, Destitute Widows, and the Remaking of American Law, 1868-1922
2001
Agha, Sameetah
The Limits of Empires: The British-Pukhtan Encounters: 1897
Blumenthal, Susanna L.
Law and the Modern Mind: The Problem of Consciousness in American Legal Culture, 1800-1930
Brown, Nikki L. M.
“Your Patriotism Is of the Purest Quality”: African-American Women and World War I
Chet, Guy
Degeneration and Regeneration of European Warfare in Colonial New England: The Response of Colonial and British Forces to the Challenges of Wilderness Warfare
Craib, Raymond
Fixations, Fugitive Landscapes: Mapping, Surveying and the Spatial Creation of Modern Mexico, 1850-1930
Davenport, Stewart A.
Moral Man, Immoral Economy: Protestant Reflections on Market Capitalism, 1820-1860
De Laforcade, Geoffrey
A Laboratory of Argentine Labor Movements: Dockworkers, Mariners, and the Contours of Class Identity
Fryer, Darcy Rachel
In Pursuit of Their Interest: Community Oversight of Economic and Family Life among the South Carolina Lowcountry Gentry, c. 1730-89
Gellar, Jay Howard
Jewish Organizations and West German Politics after the Holocaust
Gill, Christopher J.
The Intimate Life of the Family: Patriarchy and the Liberal Project in Yucatan, Mexico, 1860-1915
Hillman, Elizabeth Lutes
Cold War Crime and American Military Culture: Courts-Martial in the United States Armed Forces, 1951-1973
Lopez, Rick Anthony
Lo mas mexicano de Mexico: Popular Arts, Indians, and Urban Intellectuals in the Ethnicization of Postrevolutionary National Culture, 1920-1972
Matthieu, Sarah Jane (Saje)
Jim Crow Rides This Train: The Social and Political Impact of African American Sleeping Car Porters in Canada, 1880-1939
McCarthy, Thomas Martin
The Road to Respect: Americans, Automobiles, and the Environment
Silver, Peter Rhoads
Indian-Hating and the Rise of Whiteness in Provincial Pennsylvania
Studnicki-Gizbert, Daviken
Capital’s Commonwealth: The World of Portugal’s Atlantic Merchants and the Struggle over the Nature of Commerce in the Spanish Empire, 1492-1640
Suri, Jeremi
Convergent Responses to Disorder: Cultural Revolution and Détente among the Great Powers during the 1960s
Wheeler, Charles J.
Cross-cultural Trade and Trans-regional Networks in the Port of Hoi An: Maritime Vietnam in the Early Modern Era
Woodworth, Cherie K.
The Tsar’s Decent from Caesar: Clans, Genealogy, Mythmaking, and Statehood in Medieval Russia, 1400-1550
2002
Allina-Pisano, Eric
Negotiating Colonialism: Africans, the State, and the Market in Manica District, Mozambique, 1895-c. 1935
Chazkel, Amy E.
Laws of Chance: Urban Society and the Criminalization of the Jogo do Bicho, 1880-1940
Chester, Lucy P.
Drawing the Indo-Pakistani Boundary During the 1947 Partition of South Asia
Choate, Mark Ivan
Defining “Greater Italy”: Migration and Colonialism in Africa and the Americas, 1880-1915
Dover, Paul M.
Letters, Notes and Whispers: Diplomacy, Ambassadors and Information in the Italian Renaissance Princely State
Gerhrz, Christopher Allan
The Reeducation of Germany and the Education of the West, 1945-1949
Girard, Marion L.
Confronting Total War: British Responses to Poison Gas, 1914-1918
Gitlin, Jay Larry
Negotiating the Course of the Empire: The French Bourgeois Frontier and the Emergence of mid-America, 1763-1863
Jasanoff, Maya R.
Collecting and Empire in India and Egypt, 1760-1830
Lilevik, Line
Moments of Crisis: John F. Kennedy and the Norwegian Response to the Cold War, 1960-1964
Milanich, Nara B.
The Children of Fate: Families, Class and the State of Chile, 1857-1930
Milkes, Elisa R.
A Battle’s Legacy: Waterloo in Nineteenth-Century Britain
Monroe, John W.
Evidence of Things Not Seen: Spiritism, Occultism and the Search for a Modern Faith in France, 1853-1925
Nadaner, Jeffrey Michael
Shifting Sands: John F. Kennedy and the Middle East
Overmyer-Velazquez, Mark E.
Visions of the Emerald City: Politics, Culture and Alternative Modernities in Oaxaca City, Mexico, 1877-1920
Peterson, Sarah Jo
The Politics of Land Use and Housing in World War II Michigan: Building Bombers and Communities
Rubino, Anna C.
Secrets of the Oil World: Wanda Jablonski and the Influence of Journalism
Tsadik, Daniel
Foreign Intervention: Majority, and Minority; The Status of Jews during the Later Part of Nineteenth Century Iran (1848-1896)
Watts, Edward Jay
City and School in Late Antique Athens and Alexandria
2003
Afkhami, Amir A.
Iran in the Age of Epidemics: Nationalism and the Struggle for Public Health, 1813-1942
Bachelor, Steven J.
The Edge of Miracles: Postrevolutionary Mexico City and the Remaking of the Industrial Working Class, 1925-1982
Boer, Weibe K.
Nation Building Exercise: Sporting Culture and the Rise of Football in Colonial Nigeria
Cagaptay, Soner
Crafting the Turkish Nation: Kemalism and Turkish Nationalism in the 1930s
Campbell, Robert B.
Inside Passage: Alaskan Travel, American Culture, and the Nature of Empire
Coleman, Jon T.
Wolves in American History
Dubler, Ariela Ruth
In the Shadow of Marriage: Windows, Common Law Wives, and the Legal Construction of Marriage
Herder, Michelle Marie
The Monastery of Saint Daniel and the Community of Girona, 1020-1370
Inboden, William C.
The Soul of American Diplomacy: Religion and Foreign Policy, 1945-1960
Kessenides, James
Before Hollywood: A Prehistory of Los Angeles
Luthi, Lorenz Martin
The Sino-Soviet Split, 1956-1966
Manela, Erez
The Wilsonian Moment: Self Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism
Ottman, Jennifer
Models of Christian Identity in Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth- Century Nahuatl Catechetical Literature
Priest, Claire
Currency Policies and the Nature of Litigation in Colonial New England
Vernal, Fiona
Inventing a “Select Class of Natives”: Christianity, Community and Land Access at the Farmerfield Mission, East Cape, South Africa, C. 1838-1999
Walker, Anders
The Ghost of Jim Crow: Law, Culture, and the Subversion of Civil Rights, 1954-1965
2004
Langland, Victoria
Speaking of Flowers: Student Movements and Collective Memory in Authoritarian Brazil
Lansing, Charles
Brandenburg an der Havel’s Teachers, 1933 to 1953: German Lehrer Under Two Dictatorships
Levine, Roger Saul
Sable Son of Africa: The Many Worlds of an African Cultural Intermediary on the Eastern Cape Frontier of South Africa, 1800-1848
McMillen, Christian
Rewriting History and Proving Property Rights: Hualapai Indian Activism and the Law of Land Claims in the Twentieth Century
Mumford, Jeremy
Vertical Empire: The Struggle for Andean Space in the Sixteeth Century
Nesvig, Martin Austin
Pearls Before Swine: Theory and Practice of Censorship in New Spain, 1427-1640
Plant, Alisa A.
The Re-Formation of Catholic Identity: Florimond de Raemond (ca. 1540-1601) and the Origins of the French Counter Reformation
Platt, Stephen R.
Hunanese Nationalism and the Revival of Wang Fuzhi, 1839-1923
Sasse, Benjamin E.
The Anti-Madalyn Majority: Secular Left, Religious Right, and the Rise of Reagans America
Venables, Mary Noll
In the Shadow of War: The Reign of Ernst the Pious in Seventeenth Century Saxony
Winkler, Jonathan R.
Wiring the World: U.S. Foreign Policy and Global Strategic Communications, 1914-1921
2005
Boittin, Jennifer
Soleil Noir: The Culture and Politics of Race, Genderm and Colonialism in Interwar Paris
Charron, Katherine
Teaching Citizenship: Septimus Poinsette Clark and the Transformation of the African American Freedom Struggle
Chen, Janet
Guilty of Indigence: The Urban Poor in China, 1900-1949
Chrastil, Rachel
Rebuilding France: Rights and Responsibilities in the Provinces Following the Franco-Prussian War, 1871-1892
Cunnane, Daniel D.
The Troubles in Belfast: An Anatomy of Sectarian and Political Violence, 1920-1922
Grant, Eric Bernard
“Message in our Music”: Spirituals and the Cultural Politics of Race and Nation, 1871-1945
Grossman, Lewis
The Ideal and the Actual of James Coolidge Carter: Morality and Law in the Gilded Age
Jones, Marcus
Friedrich Flick and the Expropriation of the Rombach Steel Works, 1940-1944
Khazeni, Arash
Opening the Land: Tribes, State and Ethnicity in Qajar Iran, 1800-1911
Kim, Simon Suk Yeon
Korean Students in Imperial Japan: From Visionaries to Participants in Nation Building, 1910-1945
Landau, Emily E.
Spectacular Wickedness’: New Orleans, Prostitution, and the Politics of Sex, 1897-1917
Lentz-Smith, Adriane D.
The Great War for Civil Rights: African American Politics and World War I, 1916-1920
McDonough, Susan
Judging Your Neighbor: Litigants’ Strategies and the Importance of Witness Narratives in Medieval Marseille, 1400-1430
Peterson, Brian J.
Transforming the Village: Migration, Islam and Colonialism in French Southern Mali (West Africa) 1880-1960
Provost, Darren
Martin Bucer and the Reformation of Marriage and Divorce in Early Sixteenth Century Ulm
Seltzer, Joel D.
Framing Faith, Forging a Nation: Czech Vernacular Historiography and the Bohemian Reformation, 1430-1530
Silovic-Karic, Danja
Neither Centralism nor Federalism: The Social Democracy in Croatia, 1918-1941
Sullivan, Gregory Franzis
War of the Corms: Haeckelian Biopolitics and Oka Asajino’s Evolution and Human Life
Trumbull, IV, George R.
An Empire of Facts: Ethnography and the Politics of Cultural Knowledge in French Algeria, 1871-1914
2006
Antonoff, Anne Louise
Almost War: Britain, Germany and the Bosnian Crisis, 1908-1909
Barton, Thomas
Conquest and Consolidation: Seigniorial and Royal Authority in the Lower Abro Valley, 1000-1300
Cambor, Kathleen D.
On the Border: Cultures, Immigration, and the Struggle for Identity in Fin-de-Siecle France
Celso de Castro Alves, Jose
Plebeian Activism, Popular Constitionalism: Race, Labor and Unrealized Democracy in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1780s- 1830-s
Charumbira, Ruramisai
Forgetting Lives, Remembering Symbols: Women in the History of Zimbabwe
Davis, Rebecca Louise
“The Wife Your Husband Needs”: Marriage Counseling, Religion, and Sexual Politics in the United States, 1930-1980
Fabbri, Christiane Nockels
Continuity and Change in Late Medieval Plague Medicine: A Survey of 152 Plague Tracts, 1348-1599
Hart, Tanya
Sexual, Cultural, and Civic Self-Representation among African American, British West Indian, and Southern Italian Women in New York City, 1900-1930
Kleeb, Scott Michael
The Atlantic West: Cowboys, Capitalism, and the Making of an American Myth
Knezevic, Jovana Lazic
The Austro-Hungarian Occupation of Belgrade During the First World War: Battle at the Home Front
Linker, Beth O’Donnell
For Life & Limb: The Reconstruction of a Nation and Its Disabled Soldeiers in World War I America
Lipman, Jana
A Working-Class History Between Empire and Revolution, 1939-1979
Mankoff, Jeffery
Russia and the Polish Question, 1907-1917: Nationality and Diplomacy
Mayeri, Serena
Reasoning from Race: The Civil Rights Paradigm and American Legal Feminism, 1960 – 1979
Melillo, Edward
Strangers on Familiar Soil: Chile and the Making of California, 1848-1900
Michelson, Emily
Heresy, Scripture, and Reform in Sixteenth-Century Italian Preaching
Moreton, Bethany
The Soul of the Service Economy: Wal-Mart and the Making of Christian Free Enterprise, 1929-1994
Morrissey, Robert
Bottomless and Borderlands: Empires and Identities in the Illinois Country, 1673-1785
Myrup, Erik Lars
To Rule from Afar: The Overseas Council and the Making of the Brazilian West, 1643 - 1807
Paterson, Lorraine
Tenacious Texas: Vietnam, China, and Radical Cultural Intersections, 1890 - 1930
Porter, Todd Michael
Obedience to God or Man? Responses to Persecution in the Reign of Mary I, 1553 – 1558
Romano, Sally Dunne
The Dark Side of the Sun: Skin Cancer, Sunscreen, and Risk in 20th-Century America
Schneider, Wendie
The Liar’s Cloth: Producing Veracity in the Victorian Courtroom
Way, John Thomas
The Mayan in the Mall: Culture, Development, Globalization in Guatemala, 1920 – 2003
Williams, Mark
The Brittle Thread of Life: The New England Backcountry in the Eighteenth Century
Xue, Yong
Agrarian Urbanization: Social and Economic Change in Jiangnam from the Eighth to the Nineteenth Century
Ziesche, Philipp Peter
Cosmopolitan Patriots in the Age of Revolution: Americans in Paris, 1788 – 1800
2007
Blodgett, Peter
Welcome to Wonderland: Promoting Tourism in the Rocky Mountain West, 1920-1960
Bossy, Denise Ileana
The “Noble Savage” in Chains: Indian Slavery in Colonial South Carolina, 1670-1735
Bruey, Alison
Organizing Community: Defying Dictatorship in Working-Class Santiago de Chile, 1973-1983
Delury, John Patrick
Despotism Above and Below: Gan Yanwu’s Record of Daily Learning on Power, Money and Mores
Folsom, Raphael Brewster
“This Weeping Land:” The Making, Destruction, and Rebirth of the Yaqui Mission Towns
Guettel, Jens-Uwe
Reading America, Studying Empire: German Perceptions of Indians, Slavery and the American West, 1789-7900
Guild, Joshua Bruce
You Can’t Go Home Again: Migration, Citizenship, and Black Community in Postwar New York and London
Ingram, Tammy Leigh
Dixie Highway: Private Enterprise and State Building in the South, 1900-1930
Jo, Michael
Spiritual Capitalism: Christianity, Commerce, and Conservatism in Industrial America, 1900-1950
Levithan, Joshua
Welfare and Combat Motivation in the Roman Army
Loiselle, Kenneth B.
“New but True Friends:” Freemasonry and the Culture of Male Friendship in Enlightenment France
McLeod, Kari Suzanne
Health Matters: Public Understanding of Health in 1950s America
O’Brien, Stephen Kent
On Perilous Ground: A Social and Environmental History of Escuintla on Guatemala’s South Coast, 1928-1962
Ott, Julia
When Wall Street Met Main Street: The Quest for an Investors’ Democracy and the Emergence of the Retail Investor in the United States, 1890-1930
Runstedtler, Theresa Elaine
Journeymen: Race, Boxing, and the Transnational World of Jack Johnson
Vella, Stephen Christopher
Gentlemanly Conquerors: The Domestication of the Indian Frontier and the Fashioning of Imperial British Identity, 1790-1850
Weinstein, Jodi Lynn
Subsistence and Sedition in Southwest China: Local Responses to Qing Rule in Eighteenth-century Guizhou
Woodard, Laurie Avant
Performing Artists of the Harlem Renaissance: Resistance, Identity, and Meaning in the Life and Work of Fredi Washington from 1920 to 1950
Wranovix, Matthew
Parish Priests and Their Books: Reading, Writing, and Keeping Accounts in the Late Medieval Diocese of Eichstatt
Yoshikawa, Lisa
Kuroita Katsumi and His State-Sanctioned Nation History, 1896-1937: Narrating Absolute Imperial Sovereignty and Japan’s Civilizing Mission in Asia as History
2008
Anderson, Theodore Marvin
Reimagining Religion: The Grounding of Spiritual Politics and Practice in Modern America, 1890-1940
Aramayo, Carlos Roy
The Intellectual Origins of the Modern Bolivian Political System, 1918-1943
Arenson, Adam Isaac
City of Manifest Destiny: St. Louis and the Cultural Civil War, 1848-1877
Bailey, John Christian
Between Yesterday and Tomorrow: Discourses of Europe in Germany, 1939-1950
Cadava, Geraldo Lujan
Corridor of Exchange: Culture and Ethnicity in Tucson’s Modern Borderlands
di Bonventura, Allegra
This Little World: Family and Slavery in Old New England, 1678-1764
Driskell, Jr., Jay Winston
Two Warring Souls: Black Nationalism, Patriotism and the Roots of Independent Black Politics in Atlanta, Georgia, 1891-1924
Fairey, Kristen Ann
Mapping Status in the Elizabethan Landscape: Sir Thomas Tresham’s Architecture at Rothwell and Rushton, c. 1570-1600
Foshko, Katherine
France’s Russian Moment: Russian Émigrés in Interwar Paris and French Society
Kehler, Edward Harold
East German Reactions to Poland’s Solidarity Movement, 1980-81
Keith, Charles Patrick
Catholic Vietnam, Church, Colonialism and Revolution, 1887-1945
Marshak, Adam Kolman
Herod the Great and the Power of Image: Political Self-Representation in the Herodian Dynasty
Matteson, Carol Kieko
“Masters of Their Woods:” Conservation, Community, and Conflict in Revolutionary France, 1669-1848
McDow, Thomas Franklin
Arabs and Africans: Commerce and Kinship from Oman to the East African Interior, c 1820-1900
Meyer, Manuella
Enlightened Reason in the Tropics: Madness, Society and the State in Rio de Janeiro Brazil, 1808-1930
Nguyen, Lien-Hang T.
“Between the Storms:” North Vietnam’s Strategy During the Second Indochina War (1955-1973)
Olszewski, Todd Michael
Cholesterol: A Scientific, Medical, and Social History, 1908-1962
O’Neill, Lindsay
“Speaking Letters:” Epistolary Networks, Communication, and Community in the Wider British World, 1660-1760
Park, Hyunhee
The Delineation of a Coastline: The Growth of Mutual Geographic Knowledge in China and the Islamic World from 750 to 1500
Ransmeier, Johanna Sirera
“No Other Choice:” The Sale of People in Late Qing and Republican Beijing, 1870-1935
Rix, Rebecca A.
Gender and Reconstitution: The Family and Individual Basis of Republican Government Contested, 1870-1925
Seijas, Tatiana
Transpacific Servitude: The Asian Slaves of Mexico, 1580-1700
Shugerman, Jed Handelsman
The People’s Courts: The Rise of Judicial Elections in America
Sood, Gagan D.S.
Pluralism, Hegemony and Custom in Cosmopolitan Eurasia, ca. 1720-90, with Particular Reference to the Mercantile Arena
Stites, Jessica Leigh
Screening the Transition: A Cultural History of Argentine Documentalismo, 1976-2004
Veit, Helen
Victory over Ourselves: American Food and Progressivism in the Era of the Great War
Vivier, Brian Thomas
Chinese Foreign Trade, 960-1276
Vushko, Iryna
Enlightened Absolutism, Imperial Bureaucracy and Provincial Society: The Austrian Project to Transform Galicia, 1772-1815
Walker, Louise Elizabeth
The End of Miracles: Crisis and the Middle Classes in Mexico City, 1971-1988
Ward, Jason Morgan
Saving Segregation: Southern Whites, Civil Rights, and the Roots of Massive Resistance, 1936-1954
Warren, Wendy Anne
Enslaved Africans in New England, 1638-1700
Wei, John Chin-Chau
Law and Religion in Gratian’s Decretum
Yoon, Wook
The Grand Council and the Communication System in the Late Qing
2009
Baldock, Charles Nicholas Martin
The Religious Imagination in British Popular Fiction and Society, 1900-1945
Boumkwo Baneni, Catherine
Paradoxes in the Anthropology of John Calvin (1509-1564): Dialectics in Renaissance Thinkers’ Views on Human Nature
Brands, Henry Stallcup
Latin America’s Cold War: An International History from Guevara to Reagan
Burson, Joshua Robert
The Relationship Between the City of Constance and its Hinterland in the Fifteenth Century
Casey, Brian Patrick
Against the Materialists: John Carew Eccles, Karl Raimund Popper, and the Ghost in the Machine
Crewe, Ryan Domenic
Building a Visible Church: The Mexican Mission Enterprise in the Early Spanish Atlantic, 1521-1600
Duncan, Sarah L.
“A Queen and By the Same Title a King Also:” Gender, Power, and Ceremony in the Reign of Mary I
Duranti, Marco Ochs
Conservatism, Christian Democracy and the European Human Rights Project, 1945-50
Feldman, Andrea
Imbro Ignajatijevic Tkalac and Liberalism in Croatia
Franklin-Lyons, Adam
Famine–Preparation and Response in Catalonia after the Black Death
Fu, Jian-chen
Society’s Laboratories: Biomedical Nutrition and the Modern Chinese Body, 1910-1915
Gilpin, Robert Blakeslee
Monster and Martyr: America’s Long Reckoning with Race, Violence, and John Brown
Heefner, Gretchen
The Missile Next Door: The Cold War Minuteman and the Arming of the Heartland
Hillis, Faith
Between Empire and Nation: Urban Politics, Community, and Violence in Kiev, 1863-1907
Irwin, Julia F.
Humanitarian Occupation: Foreign Relief and Assistance in the Formation of American International Identities, 1898-1928
Lundberg, James McMurrin
Horace Greeley and the Culture of American Capitalism, 1834-1872
Madley, Benjamin Logan
American Genocide: The California Indian Catastrophe, 1846-1873
McDougall, Sara Ann
Bigamy in Late-medieval France
Mulready-Stone, Kristin
Organizing Shanghai’s Youth: Communist, Nationalist, and Collaborationist Strategies, 1920-1942
O’Connell, Aaron Breault
Underdogs: A Cultural History of the United States Marine Corps, 1941-1965
Racine, Felix
Literary Geography in Late Antiquity
Robson, Laura Caroline
The Making of Sectarianism: Arab Christians in Mandate Palestine
Sackett, Andrew Jonathan
The Making of Acapulco: People, Land and the State in the Development of the Mexican Riviera, 1927-1973
Schofield, Camilla
Enoch Powell and the Making of Postcolonial Britain
Stuckey, Melissa Nicole
All Men Up: Race, Rights, and Power in the All-Black Town of Boley, Oklahoma, 1903-1939
Tate, Joshua Christopher
Advowson Law and Litigation in the English Royal Courts, 1154-1250
Thomas, Torrence Nathaniel
Papal Propaganda during the Great Schism, 1378-1417
Van Vleck, Jenifer Leigh
No Distant Places: Aviation and the Global American Century
Vejdani, Farzin
Purveyors of the Past: Iranian Historians and Nationalist Historiography, 1900-1941
Walker, Charlotte
Legal Revolutions and Evolution: Law, Chiefs, and Colonial Order in Cameroon, 1914-1955
Wang, Ping-Yuan
Writing Lives and Defining Community: Cloistered Women in the Catholic Reformation
Weise, Julie Meira
Fighting for Their Place: Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the U.S. South, 1910-2008
Williams, R. Owen
Unequal Justice Under Law: The Supreme Court and America’s First Civil Rights Movement, 1857-1883